Ship building in Ancient India

Sea-Going and River-Going Vessels The Sanskrit texts like Vedas, Jatakas, Panini’s Astadhyayi, epics, Arthashastra etc consists of innumerable references to sea voyages and sea-borne trade. Among the surviving indigenous record throwing enormous light on the Ship-building in India is Yuktikalpataru by King Bhoja who is known as well reputed name in literature and history. He is author of many valuable work like Samarangana Sutradhara (architecture), Rajamartanda, Saraswati Kanthabharna, Subhasita-prabandha etc. #Yuktikalpataru, a Sanskrit manuscript by Bhoja Narapati is something like a treatise, on art of ship-building in Ancient India. The two chapters entitled Nispadayanodesa and Jaghanya Jalayanani under following heads gives description of subjects like Sea and period suitable for ship-building, varieties of wood best suited for ship-building, tying of iron nail to sea-going vessels, classification of River going (Samanya) and Sea-going (Visesa) ships, names and measurements of ordinary type of vessels, two types of special ships – dirgha (according to length) and Unnata (according to height) etc. [6,7] Yuktikalpataru gives according to Vriksha-Ayurveda (science of plant life), an account of four different kinds of wood. The first class comprises wood that is light and soft, and can be joined to any other wood. The second class is light and hard, but cannot be joined be to any class of wood. The third class of wood is soft and heavy. Lastly the fourth kind is hard and heavy. According to Bhoja, the ship made out of second class of wood, brings wealth and happiness. Ships of this kind be safely used for crossing the oceans. Ships made out of timbers containing different properties are not good, as they rot in water, and split and sink at the slightest shock. The thirty first chapter contains description of various kinds of mechanical contrivances (yantra) such as elephant machine (gajayantra), wooden bird machine travelling on air (vyomacari-vihanga yantra), wooden vimana flying machine and many more. The Samarangana defines yantra as machine which controls the bhutas and make them serve a specific purpose. The main elements of yantra according to Samarangana are four – the earth, water, fire and wind and it states the three varieties of yantra – Jala (water) Yantra, Agneya yantra and Vayu (Air) Yantra. [6,7] Yuktikalpataru also suggests metals to be used for decorations. According to cabins, ships are to be grouped into three classes:[7] (1) #Sarvamandira Ships, having the largest cabin, from one end of the ship to other basically used for transportation of royal treasury. (2) #Madhyamandira Ships, with cabins for rainy seasons (3) Ships with cabins near the prows, are called #Agramandira and are used for sailing in the dry seasons. It was in these ships, that the first naval battle recorded in Indian literature, was fought, when Tugra, the Rishi King, sent his son Bhujyu against his enemies inhabiting some Island, and Bhujyu, on being wrecked was rescued by two Aswins. [8] Of the same descriptions are the five hundred vessels mentioned in #Ramayana with Swastika flags on it. In #Rajavalliya, the ship in which prince Vijaya and his followers were sent away by King Sinhala of Bengal was large enough to accommodate seven hundred passengers.[5] The Janaka Jataka mentions ship wreck of seven hundred passengers too. The ship by which was used for rescuing of Brahmin mentioned in Sankha Jataka was 800 cubits (#370Meters) length, 600 cubits (277m) in width, 20 fathoms (36m) deep and had 3 masts.[6] The ship named #SantaMaria used by Christopher Columbus in his first voyage, was 18-25 meter long. [1,2] #KautilyaArthashastra, devotes a full chapter on state department of waterways under Navadhyaksha “Superintendent of ships”. His duties included the examination of accounts relating to the navigation, not only on oceans and mouths of river but also on lakes, natural or artificial, and rivers. Vasco’s ship was the ’#SaoGabriel’, a nau of length 27 meters. [3,4] ==================================================== References and Readings [1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_(ship) [2] http://www.madeira-web.com/PagesUK/santa-maria.html [3] http://www.shipsonstamps.org/Topics/html/vasco.htm [4]http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Vasco_da_Gama [5] From Bharata to India: Chrysee the Golde By M. K. Agarwal [6] Society, Law and Administration in Ancient India edited by H. S. Bhatia [7] Chaudhary, M. (1975). Ship-Building in the Yuktikalpataru and Samaranga Sutradhara. Indian National Science Academy, Calcutta. [8] http://ancientvoice.wikidot.com/rvs:bhujyu http://www.unitconversion.org/…/cubits-greek-to-meters-conv…

Pre Spanish history of Phillippines-A MYSTERY DECODED-TAMIL CULTURE

The Pre Spanish history of Philippines was shrouded in mystery. Now the mist around the Philippines is clearing thanks to recent discoveries. The Spaniards, wherever they went, destroyed the local culture, plundered their gold and massacred the people. They spared those people who converted to Christianity. The Philippines is a country of 7000 islands. Nobody asked or wondered what those places were called before they named it “ Philippines” just 400 years ago. They had their own names, their own culture, but they were ignored as primitive and uncivilized. Fortunately one inscription and one golden statue escaped the wrath of the religious fanatics. One important Tamil inscription of Rajendra Chola was not properly explained. Half of the place names mentioned in the inscription is not properly identified. The East Indies were known to Kalidasa of 1st century BC. Parasurama was linked with Aparanta. Kalidasa used to mention Indonesia and the islands beyond as Dwipantara. Rajendra Cholas inscription mentioned Parasurama. Hindu music instrument Kadjabi is still played in the Philippines. Hundreds of Sanskrit words are used in the islands even today. Golden Statue A five and a half inch tall golden statue recovered from Mindanao in 1917 is kept in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda was found in Palawan. The gold statue is that of a Buddhist goddess known as Tara. It weighs 4 pounds (approximately 2 Kilos). It is dated 1200 to 1300 AD. It was found in Wawa River after heavy rains. Lot of gold was taken back to Spain and melted. Only a few escaped from the invaders. Luzon in the Philippines was ruled by Lakans (local chieftains) from 900 AD until 1571. An inscription found there known as Laguna copperplate inscription dated 900 AD contains Sanskrit words and place names. The inscription which was found in 1989 contains information about debts cleared by the ruler of Tondo. Namwaran along with his children Lady Angkatana and Buka were cleared of debts. It was written in Kawi script. Lord Minister Jayadewa issued the order. The inscription is kept in the National Museum of the Philippines in Manila. A lot of Sanskrit words such as Swasti, Visaka,Chathurthi, Suwarna, Krishnapaksha, Somawara, Dewata, Jyotisa are in the text. Full text and translation is available in Wikipedia. Language Wikipedia article says 25 percent of words in Philippines native language are from Sanskrit and Tamil. Look at the list given by Wikipedia: From Tagalog: * budhi “conscience” from the Sanskrit bodhi * dukha “one who suffers” from the Sanskrit dukkha * guro “teacher” from the Sanskrit guru * sampalataya “faith” from the Sanskrit sampratyaya * mukha “face” from the Sanskrit mukha * laho “eclipse” from the Sanskrit rahu * maharlika “noble” from Sanskrit mahardikka From Kapampangan: * kalma “fate” from the Sanskrit karma * damla “divine law” from the Sanskrit dharma * mantala -“magic formulas” from the Sanskrit mantra * upaya “power” from the Sanskrit upaya * lupa “face” from the Sanskrit rupa * sabla “every” from the Sanskrit sarva * lawu “eclipse” from the Sanskrit rahu * Galura “giant eagle (a surname)” from the Sanskrit garuda * Laksina -“south (a surname)” from the Sanskrit dakshin * Laksamana/Lacsamana “admiral (a surname)” from the Sanskrit lakshmana From Tausug: * suarga “heaven”; compare “sorga” in modern Indonesian [1] * neraka “hell” * agama “religion” Sanskrit and Sanskrit-derived words common to most Philippine languages: * sutla “silk” from the Sanskrit sutra * kapas “cotton” from the Sanskrit kerpas * naga “dragon or serpent” from the Sanskrit naga Ramayana in the islands Ramayana and Mahabharata are popular in all the South East Asian countries. Philippines also have its own version of Ramayana. The Maranao version is Maharadia lawana ( Maharaja Ravana). Lam- Ang is the version of the Llocanos. Many verses of Hud Hud are from Ramyana and Mahabharata. Musical Instruments Several musical instruments of the Philippines are similar to Indian musical instruments and Kutiyapi is a corrupted word of Kadjabi, a Sanskrit word. Rajendra Chola Inscription Rajendra Chola, son of the Raja Raja won many countries in South East Asia. The inscription named all the countries and islands he won around 1025 AD. K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, the greatest authority on South Indian History has written about his conquests. But when he wrote about the Cholas 75 years ago Laguna inscription was not discovere. Only Rajendra’s Tamil inscription was known. Now we know Philippine islands were under Hindu rulers even before Rajendra invaded S.E. Asian countries. Scholars identify the following places in the inscription: Sri Vijaya= Palembang, Pannai= North Sumatra, Malaiyur= Jambi, Mayirudingam= Thai-Malay peninsula, Ilangasokam= Langkasuka, Mappalam= Pegu, Mavimbangam= Isthumus of Ligor or Thai-Malay peninsula, Valaipanduru= Vietnam?, Talaitakkolam= Takoba, Madamalingam= Tambralinga, Ilamuridesam= Lamri in Aceh, Manakkavaram= Nicobar islands, Kadaram= Kedah. Some of the above places are confirmed by secondary evidence. My research shows that the place names such as Mayirudingam, Mavimbangam are islands of Philippines. The reason for this is the trade roués to China went through these islands. During 1300 year rule, the countries established trade and political contacts with China which is confirmed by the Chinese writers. A patient decoding of Chinese transliterations may reveal more truths. Sanskrit and Tamil words are corrupted beyond recognition Eg. Liang Shu (Langkasoka). Kaundinya from South India established the Hindu empire in the First century AD in Funan. Chinese writers have written about the rulers and their relationship with China. Agastya cult was deep rooted in Java, Sumatra and Bali islands. I have already written about it and Mulavarman’s Sanskrit inscription in Borneo. More From History of Indian Culture by B.M.Luniy “ Modern researchers have proved that the people of South India had established their colonies in the Philippines and they had considerably influenced all aspects of daily life. Handicrafts, coins, folk songs, traditions and many religious customs exhibit the Hindu influence there. The scripts of the people of Philippines bear striking resemblance with those of South India. In the realm of religious rites, rituals and assigning names, the natives of Philippines followed Indians closely. The names of the places on the Luzon coast and the shores of Manila bay indicate their Sanskrit origin. The discovery of Ganesh statue proves that the people followed Brahmanism. The hill tribes of Luzon worship early Vedic Gods even to this day. The people of many islands in the Pacific Ocean have physical appearance similar to that of Indo Aryans. Their languages have resemblance with those of the pre Aryan Indians like Santhals. Their religious and social customs and beliefs betray traces of Hindu cultural influences. The Hula dance of Hawai islands and Shiva dance of Samoa are similar to the folk dances of Bengal Their use of conch shell, nose flute, musical bones, staple food stuffs and animals reveal Indian origin. Many of their decorative designs, crafts, traditions, ideas of phallic symbolism and images are examples of old Polynesian cultural traits derived from the Brahmanical civilization”. 1.Pandya King who Ruled Vietnam 2.Ancient Sanskrit inscriptions in strange places 3.Sanskrit inscriptions in Mosques and on Coins 4.Sanskrit inscription and Magic Square on Tortoise 5.Ancient Tamil Dress 6.Pallankuzi (mancala) mystery 7.India- Madagascar Link 8.Is Brahmastra a Nuclear Weapon? 9.Great Engineers of Ancient India 10. The Mysterious Link between Karnataka and Cambodia We have given below part of the text of Rajendra Chola’s inscription for the benefit of Tamil readers: தொல்பெருங் காவற் பல்பழந் தீவும் செருவிற் சினவி யிருபத் தொருகால் அரசுகளை கட்ட பரசு ராமன் மேவருஞ் சாந்திமத் தீவரண் கருதி இருத்திய செம்பொற் றிருத்தகு முடியும் (20) ******** அலைகடல் நடுவுட் பலகலஞ் செலுத்திச் சங்கிராம விசையோத் துங்க வர்ம னாகிய கடாரத் தரசனை வாகையும் பொருகடல் கும்பக் கரியொடு மகப்படுத் (50) துரிமையிற் பிறக்கிய பருநிதிப் பிறக்கமும் ஆர்த்தவ னகநகர்ப் போர்த்தொழில் வாசலில் விச்சா திரத்தோ ரணமு மொய்த்தொளிர் புனைமணிப் புதவமுங் கனமணிக் கதவமும் நிறைசீர் விசயமுந் துறைநீர்ப் பண்ணையும் வன்மலை யூரெயிற் றொன்மலை யூரும் ஆழ்கட லகழ்சூழ் மாயிரு டிங்கமும் கலங்கா வல்வினை இலங்கா சோகமும் காப்புறு நிறைபுனல் மாப்பப் பாளமும் காவலம் புரிசை மேவிலிம் பங்கமும் (60) விளைப்பந் தூருடை வளைப்பந் தூரும் கலைத்தக் கோர்புகழ் தலைத்தக் கோலமும் தீதமர் பல்வினை மாதமா லிங்கமும் கலாமுதிர் கடந்திற லிலாமுரி தேசமும் தேனக்க வார்பொழில் மானக்க வாரமும் (65) தொடுகடற் காவற் கடுமுரட் கடாரமும் மாப்பொரு தண்டாற் கொண்ட கோப்பரகேசரி வன்மரான உடையார் ஸ்ரீராசேந்திர சோழதேவர்க்கு யாண்டு…”

Cultural Similarities between the Ancient Hindu & Indigenous Civilizations of the Americas

Cultural Similarities between the Ancient Hindu & Indigenous Civilizations of the Americas 
 The parallel between the arts and culture of India and those of the Americas are so numerous and close that it is not possible to attribute them to independent growth. In 1949, two scholars, Gordon Ekholm and Chaman Lal, systematically compared the Maya, Aztec, Inca, and the North American indigenous civilizations with India and the Hindu-Buddhist oriented countries of South-East Asia. They found signs of Hindu civilization throughout the Americas in art architecture, calendars, astronomy, religious symbols, etc. The zenith of Maya civilization was reached at a time when ancient India had attained an unparalleled cultural peak during the Gupta Period in 320 AD. Buddhism which originated in India from Hindu philosophical ideas not only spread across to the Far East but also to Mexico. Hence, the cultural influences of South-East Asia in Mexico are very strong. In Cambodia, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Angkor Wat is a living testimony to the contribution of Indian culture towards the Cambodian Khmer heritage. Similar bas reliefs are found at Borobudur in Indonesia. Sir Stamford Raffles the British historian, and founder of Singapore as a British colony, expressed a similar view when he wrote: “the great temple of Borobudur in Java might readily be mistaken for a Central American temple.” It is worth mentioning that the eminent scholar, Miles Poindexter, a former ambassador of the United States to Mexico, in his two-volume 1930s treatise “The Ayar-Incas” called the Maya civilization “unquestionably Hindu.” There are so many cultural similarities between the Hindu and the Maya civilizations that it makes it very easy to point out towards a common relation. In 1849, the United States Charge d’affaires to Central America, Ephraim George Squier wrote: “A proper examination of these monuments would disclose the fact that in their interior as well as their exterior form and obvious purposes, these buildings (temples in Palenque, Mexico) correspond with great exactness to those of Hindustan (India)…” Another scholar, Ramon Mena, author of Synthesis of Mexican archaeology for the summer school of the National University, (1924) called the Nahuatl, Zapoteca, and Mayan languages “of Hindu origin.” He went to say, “A deep mystery enfolds the tribes that inhabited the state of Chiapas in the district named Palenque….their writing, and the anthropological type, as well as their personal adornments…their system and style of construction clearly indicate the remotest antiquity…(they) all speak of India and the Orient.” Striking similarity is found between certain Maya and the Hindu mythologies, and their related astronomical interpretation. In Hindu mythology, Lord Vishnu is represented as resting on the serpent, Ananta or Sheshnaga. The eagle, Garuda is his carrier or vehicle. In the Hindu temples dedicated to the worship of Lord Vishnu, both Sheshnaga and Garuda are shown alongside. Sheshnaga represents the water deities while Garuda represents the Vedas and the solar deities. The serpent is of great significance in all the Mesoamerican cultures including the Maya culture too. The Maya Kukulkán or the Aztec Quetzalcóatl, the Feathered Serpent god is the combination of Sheshnaga and Garuda. Both the Hindus and the Maya used similar items in their worship rituals. Royal insignias, systems of government, and practice of religious dance and temple worship all showed remarkable similarities. The Hindu caste system was prevalent in the Maya culture too and in both cultures, the priest class was the retainer of knowledge on religion, astronomy, science, mathematics, etc. Maya temples and idols were lavishly decorated with gold and precious stones, just like those in India and their divine images were painted in blue. The Maya of Yucatan offered animal sacrifices to the gods in the same way as is done in North India, at the same seasons and determined by the same stars. Maya “scorpion stars” were the same as the constellation Scorpio on Hindu charts. At the Maya site of Uxmal in Yucatan, some phallic structures were discovered which were later removed by the authorities in the late nineteenth century. In Hindu culture, phallic structures are worshipped in the form of Shiva Lingams representing Lord Shiva. In 1911, William Niven, a renowned mineralogist and archaeologist, discovered ancient ruins buried beneath volcanic ash near Azcapotzalco in the Federal District, just north of Mexico City. Among the many stone tablets recovered from the “Buried City”, there were few which bore pictographs of the sacred Hindu Swastika, the symbol of cyclic time. Like in India, the umbrella was used as a sign of royalty which is clearly depicted in the Maya art. The game of Pachisi which originated in India somewhere around 500 BC was played even in Mexico by the name of Patolli. Chewing of betel and coca leaves is a common daily habit in both the countries. Maya women pierced their left nostril for inserting jewelled nose rings like Indian women. The practice of astrology and mental telepathy is common among both cultures. The Maya were of peace-loving disposition like the Hindus which allowed both of them to be ruled by Europeans. Last but not the least of the similarities is the cultivation of cotton, practiced since early times in Asia. When South American cotton was studied, scholars and scientists were thoroughly baffled. After a series of painstaking experiments to determine genetic origin, experts agreed that one parent of the American cotton undoubtedly came from Asia: in other words, from the Indus Valley – the most advanced ancient civilizations which grew in the present-day Pakistan and the north-western parts of India from 3300 BC before suddenly disappearing in 1400 BC. It has been claimed that even maize, the most Mesoamerican crop, was in use in Asia before Columbus brought it from the Americas. Eleventh century temples in Southern India, where maize was supposedly unknown at the time, house many stone figures which, according to cultural geographers, are shown offering ears of maize to the Gods. Another common custom is the offering of food to God before eating as an expression of gratitude for the meal provided. Mexican food displays unusual similarities to Indian food. Like the Hindus, the Maya too were primarily vegetarians. The Indian rotis or chappatis and the Mexican tortillas are totally similar in preparation, size and shape. Maya paintings depict their men folk dressed in white loin cloth wrapped around their waist extending till knee level. Both these styles with the white loin cloth are till today the customary daily wear of the people of South India. Prior to the colonial invention of the wooden whisk called molinillo, hot chocolate was frothed up by pouring it from one cup to another. In South India, the ancient custom of pouring coffee from one cup to another to create foam before it is served, is widely in existence even today and is the essence of South Indian filter coffee. This article and a lot many interesting details were part of my epic book titled “Mexico: A grand voyage through the fascinating land with ancient links to India” which I completed in 2010. I set aside these incredible details when I converted the epic book into three e-books Discovering Mexico, Mexico: The Country, Its History & The Maya World and A Guide To Mexican Cuisine which are available for sale on this blog. I hope you enjoyed reading my work as much as I enjoyed writing it. If you’re interested in knowing all about Mexico, do check out my three e-books. Thanks for stopping by, I hope to see you again :https://thegr8wall.wordpress.com/2013/03/23/cultural-similarities-between-the-ancient-hindu-indigenous-civilizations-of-the-americas/

Double Headed Eagle: Sumerian-Indian Connection

Double Headed Eagle: Sumerian-Indian Connection 
There are striking similarities between the Indian and Sumerian civilizations. One of them is the use of the Double Headed Eagle as a royal symbol. From 3800 BC until today this mythical bird is used as a symbol of royalty. Russia and other Eastern European countries use it on their currency notes and national flags. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh praise the mighty strength of this bird in coins, sculptures and literature. The Panchatantra used the story of double headed bird, also known as Ganda Berunda bird, to emphasize unity. Ancient Cankam (Sangam) Tamil literature used this bird in their love poetry. Devotional poets of India like Ekanath also used this bird as a simile. Sumerians considered this bird the symbol of God Ninurta of Lagash. They thought it had divine power. We can trace the history of this mythical bird from the Sumerian days. A cylindrical seal shows the double headed eagle from 3800 BC. Later, the Hittite empire which had its capital in Bogazkoy (in Modern Turkey) used it in several monuments. Even today we can see the monuments displaying this symbol in huge sculptures in Hattusa and Yazilikaya. Bogazkoy was the place where a tablet with the names of the Vedic Gods: Indra, Mitra, Nasatya and Varuna was discovered. The tablet was dated 1380 BC. This establishes the Indian connection of the region. Even the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire used this symbol. This Hindu symbol was used by the Christians. In Sanskrit literature – the Panchatantra (book of fables) has a story about Ganda Berunda bird. It says that the bird had two heads but one stomach. In the story, one head wanted to drink Amrita (ambrosia) but the other head went for poison. Ultimately, the head that drank the poison made the bird die. The moral of the story is that disunity is dangerous. Tamil literature, dated two thousand years old, mentions it in three places. In Akananuru, poet Kapilar (verse 12) compares this double-headed, single-bellied bird to two people in love. Though there were two physical bodies, they have one life. Nallanthuvanar also used this simile in Paripatal (Verse 8-72). But another Tamil poet Maruthan Ilanagan in Kalithokai (verse 89) used this bird in the form of two fighting heads, like the Panchatantra story. It shows that Indians from one end of the land to the other knew this bird very well. Thakadur Yaththirai is a lost Tamil book, but excerpts are available as quotes in other works. These quotes compared the fight between two kings Athiyaman and Peruncheral Irumporai to the double headed bird fighting with itself. (Ref. Purath thirattu verse 785). The most imaginative story of the bird comes from the Vijayanagar Empire. Gold Coins issued by Achyuta Raya (1530-1542) show the Ganda Berunda bird lifting an elephant in each of its beaks. Its power is legendary. Other coins show each head holding a snake. Before Achyuta Raya Devaraya II (1422-1446) issued coins with the bird’s name in Deva Nagari script. Jain Stupa at Sirkap, Taxila is the most ancient Ganda Berunda monument in India. We can see this mythical bird sculptures in Srisailam, Keladi, Koramangala, Belur and the medieval art of Sri Lanka. Recently even dances were choreographed showing the magical strength of the bird. Dasara Flower Show in Mysore had a 10 foot flower decoration of the bird to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the bird symbol in Karnataka. The Wodeyar family of Mysore use this as their royal emblem. Later the Government of Karnataka used it as the emblem of the state. There are stories connecting this bird with the Narasimha (Man-Lion) avatara of Vishnu. Eastern European country Albania has this bird in its national flag. Several countries issued stamps and coins as well. Russian Roubles and Kopeks had this bird. In the Eastern Province Erzurum of Turkey, a huge double headed eagle is being erected in 2011 which is visible from space. Turkey gives so much importance to this legendary bird. An ancient monument of Turkey shows this bird lifting two hares on its beaks. But the imagination of Indians made it a dinosaur lifting two elephants 

Similarities in Ancient Hindu and Latin American Architecture

Similarities in Ancient Hindu and Latin American Architecture 

The common architectural elements which India and the South-East Asia share with the Mesoamerican Maya are the pyramids with receding stages, faced with cut stone, and with stairways leading to a stone sanctuary on top. Many of the pyramids share surprisingly common features such as serpent columns and banisters, vaulted galleries and corbeled arches, attached columns, stone cut-out lattices, and Atlantean figures which are all typical of the Puuc style of Yucatan. The temple pyramids in Cambodia gained prominence in the ninth and tenth centuries, a time coinciding with the beginning of the Puuc period. Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati, the foremost expert on Vastu Shatra (the ancient Hindu architecture), claimed that there had to be a connection between India and South America based on the old Sanskrit and Tamil scriptures on architecture. His ancestors had built the great Shiva temple in Thanjavur in South India approximately a thousand years ago, and he himself continues to build temples all over the world according to the same principles of Vedic architecture. In 1995, he visited the archaeological zones of the Maya and the Inca in Mexico, Central America and Peru. He noted many similarities with Vedic architecture in terms of design, measurements and construction methods of the ancient structures. In addition, the techniques applied by the Maya to erect their buildings and to hammer their huge stones for temples and pyramids are identical to those still taught and applied by Dr. Sthapati today. It is noted in the Vastu Shastras that the creator of its architecture is named Mayan. The fundamental principle of Mayan’s architecture and town planning is the “module.” Buildings and towns are to be laid out according to certain multiples of a standard unit. Floor plans, door locations and sizes, wall heights and roofs, all are determined by the modular plan. Incan and Maya structures followed this modular plan. Chichen Itza too conformed to the Vastu Vedic principles of Mayan. The basic similarities include the method of joining and fitting of stones, the use of lime mortar, levelling with a plumb line and triangle, and the corbeling for the roofs. Corbeling is the method by which stones are drawn in layer by layer until they meet or nearly meet to allow a roof slab to be placed on top. The similarity of this technology to that used in India is very significant. It has been confirmed that the layout of the Maya structures, the locations of doors and windows, proportions of width to length, roof styles, degree of slopes for roofs, column sizes, wall thicknesses, etc., all conform completely to the principles and guidelines as prescribed in the Vastu Shastras of India. Residential layouts are identical to those found in the Indus Valley civilization. As in Maya buildings, the Hindus have been using lime mortar for all of their stone and brick buildings. This can be seen in the monumental creations in Mahabalipuram and the famed stone temples of Thanjavur in the southern state of Tamil Nadu. The outer surfaces of these temples were plastered, embellished in lime mortar and then painted. This method was strong among the Maya too whose structures were plaster-coated and painted in different colours. So the question is did Maya Danava really travel from South India to Mexico, Central America and Peru, or did he originally come from that region to become a famous architect in India later? This question can only be answered if we take into account the mystical personality of Maya Danava. According to historical records of the Vedic culture, Maya Danava’s influence on man was prevailing for 8000 years. At the same time, he is described as a being from another planetary system, equipped with all sorts of mystic powers and with an astronomic life span. Had the same Maya Danava first worked as an architect in South India and published Vedic texts in order to contribute later to the development of the Maya Culture in Central America, which shows a number of similarities with the Vedic India also in fields different from architecture? According to Dr. Sthapati, there are two specific archaeological discoveries pertaining to 761 AD, about which most historians are silent, that are significant as possible links of Maya civilization to ancient India. The first one is a wall panel at Piedras Negras in Guatemala belonging to the Mesoamerican Classic Period. It appears that the scene depicted in the panel relates to the great Hindu epic ‘Ramayana’. It shows a king sitting on the throne and one maidservant with two children standing on the right side of the throne. A guard stands behind the three. On the other side of the king, three important personages are standing whereas the vassal chiefs and important feudatories are sitting in front of the throne. The king on the throne is believed to be Lord Ram with his three illustrious brothers standing by his side. The two little children are his two sons with a maid and a guard behind them. This panel is a beautiful piece of sculpture and an evidence of great Maya heritage, their artistic taste and superior creative ability and, above all, an archaeological evidence to prove India’s link with Mexico in the 8th century at least. The artistic design and postures of the figures carved can be compared to those found at the famed Ajanta and Ellora caves in India. This interpretation, however, remains only a plausible one till the hieroglyphics and frescoes surrounding the wall panel are deciphered. Another archaeological discovery at the same place belonging to the same period is a stone stele with a beautiful image of a deity with eight hands (called “ashtabhuja” in Sanskrit). The art style is discernibly Indian as this type of deity is not worshipped in any other religion of the world. The Vedic origin is further enhanced by the frequency that the elephant motif is found in Maya art, especially the earlier works of the Maya, such as at Copan in Honduras, although the elephant never existed in that region.

Surgery during Chola Kingdom

It can be acquainted about the medical services of the Chola kings from the inscriptions. A temple inscription of 11th century speaks in detail about a hospital functioned in the name of Vira Cholan Athura Salai. The hospital was founded in the name of king Vira Chola (1063-1069 AD). A Brahmin by the name of Savarna Kothandarama Aswathama Bhattan of Alampakkum was in charge of this hospital that had only fifteen beds. His title indicates he was also the chief consultant. The person who was second to the consultant is referred to as “the one who treats”. There were nurses (females) to assist him in caring the patients and administering medicine. An attendant was there to serve food and water purified by the addition of cardamom and the lamichcham (roots of Vetiveria zizanioides) From the salary particulars revealed by this inscription, it is clear that the surgeon received much less remuneration compared to that of the consultant or his second in command. As we have observed earlier the departments of medicine and surgery were taken care of by two different classes of people. The profession of surgery was considered inferior to general medicine and had been performed by people belonging to lower classes. This could explain the salary differences between the physician and the surgeon in this ancient hospital. The sculpture shown below depicts an event of surgery in ancient India. Persons belonging to various professions are involved in the process of surgery. Among them, the physician of the higher rank is seen with a turban, a bright aura around his head and a book in his hands. The person in the next rank is depicted here with a dull aura and without a turban but. The surgeon shown appears to be ordinary citizen as without any special feature to reflect his identity. He is neither wearing a turban nor any ornaments. The one who cares the patient is a female, probably a nurse or a relative to the patient. Though the surgeons were not respected and properly paid, there had been always a unique place for surgery in Ayurveda in the past. Previously cited temple inscription also provides a list of medicines stored in the Vira Chola’s hospital. The list includes the following. Vasa haritaki Dasamoola haritaki Bilvatha haritaki Bala eranda Taila Panchaka Taila Lasunathi eranda Taila Uthamkarnathi Taila Mandura Vadakam Sirovasthy Brahmium Kadumpuri Kandiram Vimalai Sunetri Tamrathi Vajrakalpam Kalyana lavanam Sanskrit Name Latin Name Vasa Adathoda vasica Haritaki Terminalia Chebula Bala sida cordifolia Lasuna Allium sativum Eranda Ricinus communis Bilva Eagle marmelos Ballathaka Semicarpus anacardium Mandura Ferric oxide Mandura means iron dust. Vadakam means dried medicinal balls. Maduram is the powder scattered while thrashing the iron rods in the iron smith workshops. This iron powder collected from soil, is mixed with cow’s urine and fried in a mud pan. This process is referred to as the purification of manduram (the iron dust). Pararajasekaram, a Tamil medical text written in Sri Lanka in the 16th century describes the process of preparing Mandura Vadakam as follows: “the purified iron dust is mixed with lime juice and boiled. When the mixture reaches the semi solid state, dried ginger, black pepper, long pepper and garlic are added to it. The final product is made into dry pills. Mandura vadakam thus prepared when consumed with cooked rice and buttermilk will cure anemia.” Vasa Haritaki, Dasamoola Haritaki and Bilvatha Haritaki are the medicines prepared with chebulic myrobalan. Ayurvedic texts often prescribe different kinds of Haritakii-based preparations to cure various diseases. Haritaki medicines are prepared by processing chebulic myrobalan by removing the seeds and inserting other herbal ingredients into it. Vasa Haritaki is a formulation that contains Adathoda vasica and Haritaki. Taila refers to the medicated oil used for external application. Butter or a vegetable oil, especially, the sesame oil is used in such preparations. When castor oil is used in place of sesame oil the preparation is called Eranda Taila. When the herb known as bala (Sida cordifolia)) is used as the main ingredient of this medicated oil, the preparation is called Bala eranda Thailam. This oil is used to treat neck cramp, facial paralysis, noise in the ears and headache. Lasunadi Eranda Taila is a medicated oil in which garlic is the main ingredient. It is clear that the Government sponsored hospitals of the Chola period (between 10th and 13th centuries) provided health care based on the traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. At the same time, one cannot rule out the possibility of the existence of other local remedies as well as those prescribed by Yogis known as “Siddhars”

Krishna- protector of all

Lord Krishna had 16,108 wives technically: But Missionaries,Mlecchas and even ignorant Hindus tried to portray and make fun of Sri Krishna as playboy without understanding the core essence of Hindu philosophy. Krishna was a compassionate person.There is a story that why Krishna had 16,000 wives. Some people even joke about it and say he was the biggest playboy the earth has ever seen. But which society, whether past or present, would allow a person to declare, “I have 16,000 wives,” and for those 16,000 wives to accept one husband? Is it really possible to have a family with so many wives? The story is that these women were kidnapped by a king called Narakasura and liberated by Krishna. In Eastern society and also in Western society the belief is that marriages are made in heaven. When people have been kidnapped and kept in bondage in another kingdom by another king, their purity and chastity will definitely be doubted. In prison anything can happen – rape,sexual assault etc. When Krishna liberated the women he knew they would be rejected by their society, families and friends upon their return home because they were believed to be no longer pure(nothing different from today’s society). So he married all of them. Did he marry out of passion or out of compassion? Society accepted it because they knew that Krishna’s love was not physical or carnal. His character was such that people knew he was providing shelter and support. Krishna himself had eight wives to whom he was legally married and he provided social protection for the 16,000 wives so that they would be able to live in dignity. Krishna radiated love. When we speak of love we always think of carnal, physical love, but love does not mean a physical relationship. These are very gross definitions of love. Real love is transcendental. Radha was supposed to be Krishna’s lover. She was many years older than he was and married to someone else, yet today we do not remember the names of Krishna’s other wives other than Rukmini and Sathyabama. In India, songs of love are dedicated to Radha and Krishna to show respect for the love that existed between them. We bow our heads to that idea, that belief, that philosophy. And why go back so far? Read the story of Mira. She was born a few hundred years ago. Her love for Krishna was so intense that at the time of her death, her physical body dissolved into the statue of Krishna. She did not die a physical death as we do. The force of her love was such that her physical body merged with the statue of Krishna. Can we call this physical love? Can we understand such an expression of love? No, we cannot. Yet when we hear about it, we respect it and bow our heads in reverence. Such love is definitely transcendental.

Medical science of chola period

It can be acquainted about the medical services of the Chola kings from the inscriptions. A temple inscription of 11th century speaks in detail about a hospital functioned in the name of Vira Cholan Athura Salai. The hospital was founded in the name of king Vira Chola (1063-1069 AD). A Brahmin by the name of Savarna Kothandarama Aswathama Bhattan of Alampakkum was in charge of this hospital that had only fifteen beds. His title indicates he was also the chief consultant. The person who was second to the consultant is referred to as “the one who treats”. There were nurses (females) to assist him in caring the patients and administering medicine. An attendant was there to serve food and water purified by the addition of cardamom and the lamichcham (roots of Vetiveria zizanioides) From the salary particulars revealed by this inscription, it is clear that the surgeon received much less remuneration compared to that of the consultant or his second in command. As we have observed earlier the departments of medicine and surgery were taken care of by two different classes of people. The profession of surgery was considered inferior to general medicine and had been performed by people belonging to lower classes. This could explain the salary differences between the physician and the surgeon in this ancient hospital. The sculpture shown below depicts an event of surgery in ancient India. Persons belonging to various professions are involved in the process of surgery. Among them, the physician of the higher rank is seen with a turban, a bright aura around his head and a book in his hands. The person in the next rank is depicted here with a dull aura and without a turban but. The surgeon shown appears to be ordinary citizen as without any special feature to reflect his identity. He is neither wearing a turban nor any ornaments. The one who cares the patient is a female, probably a nurse or a relative to the patient. Though the surgeons were not respected and properly paid, there had been always a unique place for surgery in Ayurveda in the past. Previously cited temple inscription also provides a list of medicines stored in the Vira Chola’s hospital. The list includes the following. Vasa haritaki Dasamoola haritaki Bilvatha haritaki Bala eranda Taila Panchaka Taila Lasunathi eranda Taila Uthamkarnathi Taila Mandura Vadakam Sirovasthy Brahmium Kadumpuri Kandiram Vimalai Sunetri Tamrathi Vajrakalpam Kalyana lavanam Sanskrit Name Latin Name Vasa Adathoda vasica Haritaki Terminalia Chebula Bala sida cordifolia Lasuna Allium sativum Eranda Ricinus communis Bilva Eagle marmelos Ballathaka Semicarpus anacardium Mandura Ferric oxide Mandura means iron dust. Vadakam means dried medicinal balls. Maduram is the powder scattered while thrashing the iron rods in the iron smith workshops. This iron powder collected from soil, is mixed with cow’s urine and fried in a mud pan. This process is referred to as the purification of manduram (the iron dust). Pararajasekaram, a Tamil medical text written in Sri Lanka in the 16th century describes the process of preparing Mandura Vadakam as follows: “the purified iron dust is mixed with lime juice and boiled. When the mixture reaches the semi solid state, dried ginger, black pepper, long pepper and garlic are added to it. The final product is made into dry pills. Mandura vadakam thus prepared when consumed with cooked rice and buttermilk will cure anemia.” Vasa Haritaki, Dasamoola Haritaki and Bilvatha Haritaki are the medicines prepared with chebulic myrobalan. Ayurvedic texts often prescribe different kinds of Haritakii-based preparations to cure various diseases. Haritaki medicines are prepared by processing chebulic myrobalan by removing the seeds and inserting other herbal ingredients into it. Vasa Haritaki is a formulation that contains Adathoda vasica and Haritaki. Taila refers to the medicated oil used for external application. Butter or a vegetable oil, especially, the sesame oil is used in such preparations. When castor oil is used in place of sesame oil the preparation is called Eranda Taila. When the herb known as bala (Sida cordifolia)) is used as the main ingredient of this medicated oil, the preparation is called Bala eranda Thailam. This oil is used to treat neck cramp, facial paralysis, noise in the ears and headache. Lasunadi Eranda Taila is a medicated oil in which garlic is the main ingredient. It is clear that the Government sponsored hospitals of the Chola period (between 10th and 13th centuries) provided health care based on the traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. At the same time, one cannot rule out the possibility of the existence of other local remedies as well as those prescribed by Yogis known as “Siddhars”.

Bakhshali Manuscript – Ancient Indian mathematical manuscript on math

The Bakhshali Manuscript is an Ancient Indian mathematical manuscript written on "birch bark" which was found near the village of Bakhshali in 1881 in what was then the North-West Frontier Province of British India (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, in Pakistan).

Bakhshali Manuscript is written in Śāradā script and in Gatha dialect (which is a combination of the ancient Indian languages of Sanskrit and Prakrit). The manuscript is incomplete, with only seventy leaves of birch bark, many of which are mere scraps. Many remain undiscovered. The Bakhshali manuscript, which is currently too fragile to be examined by scholars, is currently housed in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford and is too fragile to be examined by scholars.

It does not appear to belong to any specific period. Although that said, G Joseph classes it as a work of the early ‘classical period’, while E Robertson and J O’Connor suggest it may be a work of Jaina mathematics, and while this is chronologically plausible there is no proof it was composed by Jain scholars. L Gurjar discusses its date in detail, and concludes it can be dated no more accurately than ‘between 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD’. He offers compelling evidence by way of detailed analysis of the contents of the manuscript (originally carried by R Hoernle). His evidence includes the language in which it was written (‘died out’ around 300 AD), discussion of currency found in several problems, and the absence of techniques known to have been developed by the 5th century.
Historians who have placed the date at pre 450 AD and identified the ‘current’ version as a copy.

Avoiding further debate, L Gurjar states that the Bakshali manuscript is the:
Capstone of the advance of mathematics from the Vedic age up to that period…
Although, as much work was lost between ‘periods’, we cannot fully gauge continuity of progress and it is possible the composer(s) of the Bakhshali manuscript were not fully aware of earlier works and had to start from ‘scratch’. This would make the work an even more remarkable achievement.

The arithmetic contained within the work is of such a high quality that it has been suggested:
…In fact [the] Greeks [are] indebted to India for much of the developments in Arithmetic…
Some of the contents of Manuscript are elaborated here.
Examples of the rule of three (and profit and loss and interest).Solution of linear equations with as many as five unknowns.The solution of the quadratic equation (development of remarkable quality). Arithmetic (and geometric) progressions.Compound Series (some evidence that work begun by Jainas continued).Quadratic indeterminate equations (origin of type ax/c = y). Simultaneous equations.Fractions and other advances in notation including use of zero and negative sign.Improved method for calculating square root (and hence approximations for irrational numbers). The improved method (shown below) allowed extremely accurate approximations to be calculated:A = (a2 + r) = a + r/2a – {(r/2a)2 / 2(a + r/2a)}
Example 6.1: Application of square root formula.
Again we can calculate 10, where a = 3 and r = 1.10 = (32 + 1) = 3 + 1/6 – {(1/36)/2(3 + 1/6)}= 3 + 1/6 – {(1/36)/(19/3)}= 3 + 1/6 – 1/228= 3.16228… in decimal form root(10) = 3.16228 when calculated on a calculator and rounded to five decimal places.
Example 6.2: Quadratic equation as found in B. Ms.
If the equation given is dn2 + (2a – d)n -2s = 0Then the solution is found using the equation:n = (- (2a – d) (2a – d)2 +8ds))/2dWhich is the quadratic equation with a = d, b = 2a – d, and c = 2s.
Example 6.3: Linear equation with 5 variables.
The following problem is stated : ”Five merchants together buy a jewel. Its price is equal to half the money possessed by the first together with the money possessed by the others, or one-third the money possessed by the second together with the moneys of the others, or one-fourth the money possessed by the third together with the moneys of the others…etc. Find the price of the jewel and the money possessed by each merchant.
Solution :We have the following systems of equations:
x1/2 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
= px1 + x2/3 + x3 + x4 + x5
= px1 + x2 + x3/4 + x4 + x5
= px1 + x2 + x3 + x4/5 +x5
= px1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5/6 = p
Then if x1/2 + x2/3 + x3/4 + x4/5 + x5/6 = q ,
the equations become (377/60 )q = p.
A number of possible answers can be obtained. This is the origin of the indeterminate equation of the type ax/c = y, the theory of which was greatly developed, and later perfected by Bhaskara II, four hundred years before it was discovered in Europe. If q = 60 then p = 377 and x1 = 120, x2 = 90, x3 = 80, x4 = 75 and x5 = 72
Ms. Historians of mathematics debate whether true algebra ‘began’ in Greece or Arabia, and little mention is ever made of Indian algebra. In light of my own research I feel that early Arabic algebra (c. 800 AD) in no way surpasses the level of understanding of 6th century Indian scholars.
The Bakhshali manuscript is a unique piece of work and while it not only contains mathematics of a remarkably high standard for the time period, also, in contrast to almost all other Indian works composed before and after, the method of the commentary follows a highly systematic order of:
i. Statement of the rule (sutra)
ii. Statement of the examples (udaharana)
iii. Demonstration of the operation (karana) of the rule.
By the end of the 2nd century AD mathematics in India had attained a considerable stature, and had become divorced from purely practical and religious requirements, (although it is worth noting that over the next 1000 years the majority of mathematical developments occurred within works on astronomy).
The topics of algebra, arithmetic and geometry had developed significantly and it is widely thought that the decimal place value system of notation had been (generally) perfected by 200 AD, the consequence of which was far reaching.

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